Scale-Dependent Effects of Landscape Heterogeneity on Butterfly Functional and Taxonomic Diversity in Andean Urban Parks

Urbanization poses a significant threat to biodiversity, reducing native species diversity in cities. Urban green spaces, like parks, become essential refuges for species adapting to altered environments, influenced by anthropogenic infrastructure that shapes species' functional responses. This study evaluates the associations between local vegetation structure, landscape heterogeneity, and butterfly taxonomic and functional diversity in 15 urban parks within the Andean city of Bogotá, Colombia. We measured 15 local-scale variables and 8 landscape heterogeneity variables at each spatial scale, examining their associations within areas ranging from 250 to 1000 m around the parks. Tree height was positively associated with functional dispersion at the local scale. At smaller landscape scales (250–500 m), species richness was positively associated with the total area of neighborhood (0.1–1.5 ha) and pocket (< 0.1 ha) parks. At larger scales (750–1000 m), functional divergence was correlated with the number of trees, while functional richness and originality were linked to proximity to water bodies. Additionally, fourth-corner and RLQ analyses revealed a scale-dependent pattern: At the local scale, tree height and diameter at breast height (DBH) were associated with wing span. At intermediate scales (250–750 m), wing span was also related to the distance from bodies of water, while at 1000 m, the total area of neighborhood parks emerged as an additional factor influencing wing span. Urban management should prioritize a great diversity of tall native trees to support diverse butterfly assemblages at local scales. Enhancing connectivity between pocket and neighborhood parks, integrating water bodies, and increasing the number of native trees within a 750 m radius can significantly boost both taxonomic and functional diversity in Bogotá.