IMPACTOS DE LA FRAGMENTACIÓN DE HÁBITAT EN LA DISPERSIÓN DE SEMILLAS A TRAVÉS DE UN ENFOQUE DE METARED

Los bosques tropicales son posiblemente uno de los biomas más importantes de la tierra ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1146/annurev-environ-030713-155141","ISSN":"1543-5938","abstract":"The Anthropocene is characterized as an epoch when human influence has begun to fundamentally alter many aspects of the Earth system and many of the planet's biomes. Here, we review and synthesize our understanding of Anthropocene changes in tropical forests. Key facets include deforestation driven by agricultural expansion, timber and wood extraction, the loss of fauna that maintain critical ecological connections, the spread of fire, landscape fragmentation, the spread of second-growth forests, new species invasion and pathogen spread, increasing CO2, and climate change. The patterns of change are spatially heterogeneous, are often characterized by strong interactions among different drivers, can have both large-scale and remote effects, and can play out through ecological cascades over long timescales. As a consequence, most tropical forests are on a trajectory to becoming altered ecosystems, with the degree of alteration dependent on the intensity and duration of the current bottleneck of human-induced pressures. We highlight the importance of this understanding to develop the strategies necessary for shaping the transition of tropical forests through the early Anthropocene, as well as highlight the opportunities and challenges for the tropical forest science community in the coming decades.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Malhi","given":"Yadvinder","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Gardner","given":"Toby A","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Goldsmith","given":"Gregory R","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Silman","given":"Miles R","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Zelazowski","given":"Przemyslaw","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Annual Review of Environment and Resources","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2014","10","17"]]},"note":"doi: 10.1146/annurev-environ-030713-155141","page":"125-159","publisher":"Annual Reviews","title":"Tropical Forests in the Anthropocene","type":"article-journal","volume":"39"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=34a64c08-9974-4c33-8b25-b9fbc5e438ea"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Malhi et al., 2014)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Malhi et al., 2014)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Malhi et al., 2014)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Malhi et al., 2014). No solo albergan más de la mitad de la biodiversidad del planeta ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/j.tree.2005.07.009","ISSN":"01695347","abstract":"Understanding and mitigating the impact of an ever-increasing population and global economic activity on tropical forests is one of the great challenges currently facing biologists, conservationists and policy makers. Tropical forests currently face obvious regional changes, both negative and positive, and uncertain global changes. Although deforestation rates have increased to unprecedented levels, natural secondary succession has reclaimed approximately 15% of the area deforested during the 1990s. Governments have also protected 18% of the remaining tropical moist forest; however, unsustainable hunting continues to threaten many keystone mammal and bird species. The structure and dynamics of old-growth forests appear to be rapidly changing, suggesting that there is a pantropical response to global anthropogenic forcing, although the evidence comes almost exclusively from censuses of tree plots and is controversial. Here, I address ongoing anthropogenic change in tropical forests and suggest how these forests might respond to increasing anthropogenic pressure.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Wright","given":"S Joseph","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Trends in Ecology & Evolution","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"10","issued":{"date-parts":[["2005","10"]]},"page":"553-560","title":"Tropical forests in a changing environment","type":"article-journal","volume":"20"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=49d27773-c731-4ce4-9799-0599f4445a1d"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Wright, 2005)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Wright, 2005)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Wright, 2005)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Wright, 2005), sino que además brindan múltiples servicios ecosistémicos como el almacenamiento de carbono y la producción de agua ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1111/j.1365-2745.2011.01916.x","ISSN":"00220477","abstract":"Summary 1.?Tropical forests account for one-third of the total metabolic activity of the Earth?s land surface. Hence, understanding the controls on tropical forest photosynthesis and respiration, and the allocation of the products of photosynthesis to canopy, woody tissue and rhizosphere, is important to understand global ecosystem functioning. 2.?I review how studies in tropical ecosystem ecology have progressed since their inception in the 1960s towards developing a quantitative, mechanistic and global description of the carbon cycle of tropical vegetation. 3.?I present a synthesis of studies in tropical forest sites in the Americas and Asia for which gross primary productivity (GPP) has been reported, and a subset of these sites for which net primary productivity (NPP) and ecosystem carbon use efficiency (CUE) have been estimated. GPP ranges between 30 and 40?Mg C ha?1?year?1 in lowland moist tropical forests and declines with elevation. CUE in tropical forests is at the low end of the global range reported for forests. 4.?A pathway and framework are presented to explain the link between photosynthesis and tropical forest biomass, and to explain differences in carbon cycling and biomass between forests. Variation in CUE and allocation of NPP can be as important as variation in GPP in explaining differences in tropical forest growth rates between sites. 5.?Finally, I explore some of the key questions surrounding the functioning and future of tropical forests in the rapidly changing conditions of the early Anthropocene. 6.?Synthesis.There have been significant recent advances in quantifying the carbon cycle of tropical forests, but our understanding of causes of variation amongst forests is still poor. Moreover, we should expect all tropical forests in the 21st century, whether intact or disturbed, to be undergoing rapid change in function and composition; the key challenge for tropical ecosystem ecologists is to determine and understand the major and most fundamental aspects of this change.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Malhi","given":"Yadvinder","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Journal of Ecology","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2012","1","1"]]},"note":"https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2745.2011.01916.x","page":"65-75","publisher":"John Wiley & Sons, Ltd","title":"The productivity, metabolism and carbon cycle of tropical forest vegetation","type":"article-journal","volume":"100"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=12caedb5-0dfb-4477-ae0d-00c27f39b574"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Malhi, 2012)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Malhi, 2012)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Malhi, 2012)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Malhi, 2012) por poner algunos ejemplos. A pesar de su importancia, la superficie cubierta por bosques en el trópico está disminuyendo a tasas aceleradas. Esta disminución se debe principalmente a la tala generalizada de bosques para la agricultura, la ganadería y el desarrollo de infraestructura ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1146/annurev-environ-030713-155141","ISSN":"1543-5938","abstract":"The Anthropocene is characterized as an epoch when human influence has begun to fundamentally alter many aspects of the Earth system and many of the planet's biomes. Here, we review and synthesize our understanding of Anthropocene changes in tropical forests. Key facets include deforestation driven by agricultural expansion, timber and wood extraction, the loss of fauna that maintain critical ecological connections, the spread of fire, landscape fragmentation, the spread of second-growth forests, new species invasion and pathogen spread, increasing CO2, and climate change. The patterns of change are spatially heterogeneous, are often characterized by strong interactions among different drivers, can have both large-scale and remote effects, and can play out through ecological cascades over long timescales. As a consequence, most tropical forests are on a trajectory to becoming altered ecosystems, with the degree of alteration dependent on the intensity and duration of the current bottleneck of human-induced pressures. We highlight the importance of this understanding to develop the strategies necessary for shaping the transition of tropical forests through the early Anthropocene, as well as highlight the opportunities and challenges for the tropical forest science community in the coming decades.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Malhi","given":"Yadvinder","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Gardner","given":"Toby A","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Goldsmith","given":"Gregory R","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Silman","given":"Miles R","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Zelazowski","given":"Przemyslaw","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Annual Review of Environment and Resources","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2014","10","17"]]},"note":"doi: 10.1146/annurev-environ-030713-155141","page":"125-159","publisher":"Annual Reviews","title":"Tropical Forests in the Anthropocene","type":"article-journal","volume":"39"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=34a64c08-9974-4c33-8b25-b9fbc5e438ea"]},{"id":"ITEM-2","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1073/pnas.0910275107","ISSN":"0027-8424","abstract":"Global demand for agricultural products such as food, feed, and fuel is now a major driver of cropland and pasture expansion across much of the developing world. Whether these new agricultural lands replace forests, degraded forests, or grasslands greatly influences the environmental consequences of expansion. Although the general pattern is known, there still is no definitive quantification of these land-cover changes. Here we analyze the rich, pan-tropical database of classified Landsat scenes created by the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations to examine pathways of agricultural expansion across the major tropical forest regions in the 1980s and 1990s and use this information to highlight the future land conversions that probably will be needed to meet mounting demand for agricultural products. Across the tropics, we find that between 1980 and 2000 more than 55% of new agricultural land came at the expense of intact forests, and another 28% came from disturbed forests. This study underscores the potential consequences of unabated agricultural expansion for forest conservation and carbon emissions.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Gibbs","given":"H. K.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Ruesch","given":"A. S.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Achard","given":"F.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Clayton","given":"M. K.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Holmgren","given":"P.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Ramankutty","given":"N.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Foley","given":"J. A.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences","id":"ITEM-2","issue":"38","issued":{"date-parts":[["2010","9","21"]]},"note":"doi: 10.1073/pnas.0910275107","page":"16732-16737","publisher":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences","title":"Tropical forests were the primary sources of new agricultural land in the 1980s and 1990s","type":"article-journal","volume":"107"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=1f547ef0-75e8-438b-8946-8a472144fe26"]},{"id":"ITEM-3","itemData":{"DOI":"10.3390/f9060305","ISBN":"1999-4907","ISSN":"1999-4907","abstract":"Amazonia is home to more than half of the world’s remaining tropical forests, playing a key role as reservoirs of carbon and biodiversity. However, whether at a slower or faster pace, continued deforestation causes forest fragmentation in this region. Thus, understanding the relationship between forest fragmentation and fire incidence and intensity in this region is critical. Here, we use MODIS Active Fire Product (MCD14ML, Collection 6) as a proxy of forest fire incidence and intensity (measured as Fire Radiative Power—FRP), and the Brazilian official Land-use and Land-cover Map to understand the relationship among deforestation, fragmentation, and forest fire on a deforestation frontier in the Brazilian Amazonia. Our results showed that forest fire incidence and intensity vary with levels of habitat loss and forest fragmentation. About 95% of active fires and the most intense ones (FRP > 500 megawatts) were found in the first kilometre from the edges in forest areas. Changes made in 2012 in the Brazilian main law regulating the conservation of forests within private properties reduced the obligation to recover illegally deforested areas, thus allowing for the maintenance of fragmented areas in the Brazilian Amazonia. Our results reinforce the need to guarantee low levels of fragmentation in the Brazilian Amazonia in order to avoid the degradation of its forests by fire and the related carbon emissions.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Silva Junior","given":"Celso","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Aragão","given":"Luiz","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Fonseca","given":"Marisa","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Almeida","given":"Catherine","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Vedovato","given":"Laura","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Anderson","given":"Liana","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Forests","id":"ITEM-3","issue":"6","issued":{"date-parts":[["2018","6","1"]]},"page":"305","title":"Deforestation-Induced Fragmentation Increases Forest Fire Occurrence in Central Brazilian Amazonia","type":"article-journal","volume":"9"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=8fb12032-aad1-4141-bf11-831fb89d8569"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Gibbs et al., 2010; Malhi et al., 2014; Silva Junior et al., 2018)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Gibbs et al., 2010; Malhi et al., 2014; Silva Junior et al., 2018)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Gibbs et al., 2010; Malhi et al., 2014; Silva Junior et al., 2018)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Gibbs et al., 2010; Malhi et al., 2014; Silva Junior et al., 2018). Conjuntamente, los remanentes de bosque quedan sujetos a perturbaciones como la defaunación ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1126/science.1251817","ISSN":"0036-8075","abstract":"We live amid a global wave of anthropogenically driven biodiversity loss: species and population extirpations and, critically, declines in local species abundance. Particularly, human impacts on animal biodiversity are an under-recognized form of global environmental change. Among terrestrial vertebrates, 322 species have become extinct since 1500, and populations of the remaining species show 25% average decline in abundance. Invertebrate patterns are equally dire: 67% of monitored populations show 45% mean abundance decline. Such animal declines will cascade onto ecosystem functioning and human well-being. Much remains unknown about this “Anthropocene defaunation”; these knowledge gaps hinder our capacity to predict and limit defaunation impacts. Clearly, however, defaunation is both a pervasive component of the planet’s sixth mass extinction and also a major driver of global ecological change.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Dirzo","given":"Rodolfo","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Young","given":"Hillary S","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Galetti","given":"Mauro","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Ceballos","given":"Gerardo","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Isaac","given":"Nick J B","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Collen","given":"Ben","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Science","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"6195","issued":{"date-parts":[["2014","7","25"]]},"page":"401-406","title":"Defaunation in the Anthropocene","type":"article-journal","volume":"345"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=21878f3b-d9c2-4530-aa02-9c75b6db69fc"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Dirzo et al., 2014)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Dirzo et al., 2014)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Dirzo et al., 2014)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Dirzo et al., 2014), los incendios forestales ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/j.pecon.2021.03.005","ISSN":"25300644","abstract":"Fire is a global disturbance that has a strong influence on biodiversity. Seasonal fires are common in neotropical savannas of South America, yet few studies have analyzed how the fauna of these habitats and nearby forests respond to fire. We evaluated the effects of fire on the community of non-volant small mammals in the Colombian llanos by comparing their populations in both unburned (no record of fire for the last 20 years) and recently burned areas (three years after the last fire event). Vegetation structure was monitored at 240 plots. We used hierarchical single-season occupancy modeling to determine potential effects of fire on small mammal detection and occupancy. Our results indicate that fire has long-term effects on plant diversity and richness, as well as on the species composition. Three years after the last fire event, the average richness of plant species at burned sites was lower than at unburned sites. Fire also affected the distribution of vegetation strata leading to an increased abundance and diversity of plants in the ground and herbaceous strata in burned plots. The hierarchical models indicate that mammals’ occupancy tracks these changes in vegetation structure. However, the effect of fire was not consistent among species. We found that fire may restrict (Didelphis marsupialis), promote (Zygodontomys brevicauda) or have no impact (Oecomys sp.) on the mammals’ distribution depending on how each species uses the strata that disappeared because of fire. These findings provide evidence toward wildfire prevention for biodiversity conservation in fire-sensitive ecosystems of northern South America.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"González","given":"Tania Marisol","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"González-Trujillo","given":"Juan David","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Muñoz","given":"Alberto","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Armenteras","given":"Dolors","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Perspectives in Ecology and Conservation","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"2","issued":{"date-parts":[["2021","4"]]},"page":"179-188","title":"Differential effects of fire on the occupancy of small mammals in neotropical savanna-gallery forests","type":"article-journal","volume":"19"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=decea13e-ac61-4133-bce0-ab26555d6289"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(González et al., 2021)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(González et al., 2021)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(González et al., 2021)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(González et al., 2021) y la fragmentación ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/j.biocon.2012.10.026","ISBN":"0006-3207","ISSN":"00063207","abstract":"The ecological characteristics of forest edges have been intensively studied in the Amazon region, but the occurrence and intensity of fires as large-scale edge effects are less well known, as is the role of different types of management in modifying this relationship. We used remote sensing techniques to examine the relationship between forest fragmentation, fire and management across NW Amazonia. Our study was based on forest data for 2005 and on active fire data from the MODerate-resolution imaging Spectro-radiometer (MODIS), with information on the occurrence and strength of fires based on fire radiative power (FRP) data. We analyzed the fragmentation and fire occurrence and intensity in a 50 × 50. km grid. We also calculated the distance at which edge-related fires occur in the forest interior and outside the forest edge. Forest fragmentation had a significant impact on fire occurrence and fire intensity, supporting the hypothesis that the more fragmented a forest is, the higher the degree of biomass combustion. These results are in agreement with the occurrence of an edge effect on both the occurrence and the intensity of fire. The different types of management in the region influence the occurrence and intensity of fire, whereas fire as a large-scale edge effect occurs independent of the management type. Finally, we suggest that a high connectivity in protected areas and indigenous reserves and also in outside areas should be encouraged to minimize edge-driven fire processes. © 2012 Elsevier Ltd.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Armenteras","given":"Dolors","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"González","given":"Tania Marisol","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Retana","given":"Javier","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Biological Conservation","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2013"]]},"page":"73-79","title":"Forest fragmentation and edge influence on fire occurrence and intensity under different management types in Amazon forests","type":"article-journal","volume":"159"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=9356edf5-9aba-4719-a2a6-fa81444b0b19"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Armenteras et al., 2013)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Armenteras et al., 2013)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Armenteras et al., 2013)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Armenteras et al., 2013), resultando en una degradación de los sistemas boscosos. Muchos de los paisajes de bosques tropicales existen como mosaicos ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1146/annurev-environ-030713-155141","ISSN":"1543-5938","abstract":"The Anthropocene is characterized as an epoch when human influence has begun to fundamentally alter many aspects of the Earth system and many of the planet's biomes. Here, we review and synthesize our understanding of Anthropocene changes in tropical forests. Key facets include deforestation driven by agricultural expansion, timber and wood extraction, the loss of fauna that maintain critical ecological connections, the spread of fire, landscape fragmentation, the spread of second-growth forests, new species invasion and pathogen spread, increasing CO2, and climate change. The patterns of change are spatially heterogeneous, are often characterized by strong interactions among different drivers, can have both large-scale and remote effects, and can play out through ecological cascades over long timescales. As a consequence, most tropical forests are on a trajectory to becoming altered ecosystems, with the degree of alteration dependent on the intensity and duration of the current bottleneck of human-induced pressures. We highlight the importance of this understanding to develop the strategies necessary for shaping the transition of tropical forests through the early Anthropocene, as well as highlight the opportunities and challenges for the tropical forest science community in the coming decades.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Malhi","given":"Yadvinder","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Gardner","given":"Toby A","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Goldsmith","given":"Gregory R","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Silman","given":"Miles R","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Zelazowski","given":"Przemyslaw","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Annual Review of Environment and Resources","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2014","10","17"]]},"note":"doi: 10.1146/annurev-environ-030713-155141","page":"125-159","publisher":"Annual Reviews","title":"Tropical Forests in the Anthropocene","type":"article-journal","volume":"39"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=34a64c08-9974-4c33-8b25-b9fbc5e438ea"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Malhi et al., 2014)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Malhi et al., 2014)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Malhi et al., 2014)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Malhi et al., 2014), resultando en parches más pequeños y aislados ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"abstract":"Graph theory, network theory, and circuit theory are increasingly being used to quantify multiple aspects of habitat connectivity and protected areas. There has been an explosive proliferation of network (connectivity) measures, resulting in over 60 measures for ecologists to now choose from. Conceptual clarification on the ecological meaning of these network measures and their interrelationships is overdue. We present a framework that categorizes network measures based on the connectivity property that they quantify (i.e., route-specific flux, route redundancy, route vulnerability, and connected habitat area) and the structural level of the habitat network to which they apply. The framework reveals a lack of network measures in the categories of \"route-specific flux among neighboring habitat patches\" and \"route redundancy at the level of network components.\" We propose that network motif and path redundancy measures can be developed to fill the gaps in these categories. The value of this framework lies in its ability to inform the selection and application of network measures. Ultimately, it will allow a better comparison among graph, network, and circuit analyses, which will improve the design and management of connected landscapes.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Rayfield","given":"Bronwyn","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Fortin","given":"Marie Josée","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Fall","given":"Andrew","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Ecology","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"4","issued":{"date-parts":[["2011"]]},"page":"847-858","title":"Connectivity for conservation: A framework to classify network measures","type":"article-journal","volume":"92"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=07bf4080-d342-4e06-84c2-e1826d0cdc43"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Rayfield et al., 2011)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Rayfield et al., 2011)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Rayfield et al., 2011)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Rayfield et al., 2011), afectando la calidad de hábitat, creando barreras para el movimiento y por ende afectando el fitness de muchas especies ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/j.spasta.2012.02.004","ISBN":"22116753","ISSN":"22116753","abstract":"A critical part of ecological studies is to quantify how landscape spatial heterogeneity affects species' distributions. With advancements in remote sensing technology and GIS, we now live in a data-rich era allowing us to investigate species-environment relationships in heterogeneous landscapes at multiple spatial scales. However, the degree and type of spatial heterogeneity changes depending on the spatial scale at which species-environment relationships are analysed. Here we present the current spatial analytic methods used in ecological studies to quantify ecological spatial heterogeneity. To determine the key spatial scales at which underlying ecological processes act upon species, we recommend use of spectral decomposition techniques such as wavelet analysis or Moran's eigenvector maps. Following this, a suite of spatial regression methods can be used to quantify the relative influence of environmental factors on species' distributions. Finally, spatial graph metrics can be employed to quantify the effects of spatial heterogeneity on landscape connectivity across or within species' ranges and can be used as additional predictors in spatial regression models. We emphasize how spatial statistics, spatial regression, and spatial graph theory can be used to provide insights into how landscape spatial complexity influences species distributions and to better understand species response to global change. © 2012 Elsevier Ltd.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Fortin","given":"Marie Josée","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"James","given":"Patrick M A","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"MacKenzie","given":"Alistair","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Melles","given":"Stephanie J.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Rayfield","given":"Bronwyn","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Spatial Statistics","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2012"]]},"page":"100-109","publisher":"Elsevier Ltd","title":"Spatial statistics, spatial regression, and graph theory in ecology","type":"article-journal","volume":"1"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=2e55ba09-b098-4682-8470-67ea58e93a06"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Fortin et al., 2012)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Fortin et al., 2012)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Fortin et al., 2012)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Fortin et al., 2012). Sin embargo, muchos de esos parches remanentes pueden albergar una fracción de la biodiversidad, contribuyendo a mantener interacciones ecológicas funcionales ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1111/ele.12909","ISSN":"1461023X","abstract":"Abstract Mutualistic interactions repeatedly preserved across fragmented landscapes can scale-up to form a spatial metanetwork describing the distribution of interactions across patches. We explored the structure of a bird seed-dispersal (BSD) metanetwork in 16 Neotropical forest fragments to test whether a distinct subset of BSD-interactions may mediate landscape functional connectivity. The metanetwork is interaction-rich, modular and poorly connected, showing high beta-diversity and turnover of species and interactions. Interactions involving large-sized species were lost in fragments < 10 000 ha, indicating a strong filtering by habitat fragmentation on the functional diversity of BSD-interactions. Persistent interactions were performed by small-seeded, fast growing plant species and by generalist, small-bodied bird species able to cross the fragmented landscape. This reduced subset of interactions forms the metanetwork components persisting to defaunation and fragmentation, and may generate long-term deficits of carbon storage while delaying forest regeneration at the landscape level.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Emer","given":"Carine","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Galetti","given":"Mauro","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Pizo","given":"Marco A","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Guimarães","given":"Paulo R.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Moraes","given":"Suelen","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Piratelli","given":"Augusto","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Jordano","given":"Pedro","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Ecology Letters","editor":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Saavedra","given":"Serguei","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issue":"4","issued":{"date-parts":[["2018","4","1"]]},"note":"https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.12909","page":"484-493","publisher":"John Wiley & Sons, Ltd","title":"Seed-dispersal interactions in fragmented landscapes - a metanetwork approach","type":"article-journal","volume":"21"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=636b3456-4e46-4780-9a8b-fdac279d964c"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Emer et al., 2018)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Emer et al., 2018)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Emer et al., 2018)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Emer et al., 2018). De acuerdo con esto, identificar este tipo de parches y su estructuración en el paisaje, así como dilucidar su influencia sobre la diversidad de todo el mosaico se convierten en tareas fundamentales para dirigir líneas efectivas de conservación y restauración de los bosques tropicales. Metaredes como aproximación para evaluar el efecto de la fragmentación Cuatro grandes procesos interactúan para moldear la biodiversidad que observamos en un paisaje: la especiación (proceso por el cual se originan nuevas especies), la dispersión (proceso por el cual se expande o contrae el rango geográfico de las especies), la selección (proceso por el cual algunas especies no pueden coexistir en tiempos y lugares determinados) y la deriva ecológica (proceso por el cual desaparecen o aparecen especies por puro azar) ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Vellend","given":"M","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"The Quarterly Review of Biology","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"2","issued":{"date-parts":[["2010"]]},"title":"Conceptual synthesis in community ecology.","type":"article-journal","volume":"85"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=93664aec-cc04-4114-ab6f-f742e74671ae"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Vellend, 2010)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Vellend, 2010)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Vellend, 2010)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Vellend, 2010). Entender cómo la interacción entre estos cuatro procesos moldea la biodiversidad en un área, paisaje o región determinadas es uno de los mayores desafíos que los ecólogos tienen en la actualidad. Ante este desafío, el marco conceptual de la ecología de metacomunidades ha sido de gran relevancia para dilucidar los mecanismos que moldean la biodiversidad y su papel en el funcionamiento de los ecosistemas terrestres ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1111/j.1461-0248.2004.00608.x","ISSN":"1461023X","abstract":"Abstract The metacommunity concept is an important way to think about linkages between different spatial scales in ecology. Here we review current understanding about this concept. We first investigate issues related to its definition as a set of local communities that are linked by dispersal of multiple potentially interacting species. We then identify four paradigms for metacommunities: the patch-dynamic view, the species-sorting view, the mass effects view and the neutral view, that each emphasizes different processes of potential importance in metacommunities. These have somewhat distinct intellectual histories and we discuss elements related to their potential future synthesis. We then use this framework to discuss why the concept is useful in modifying existing ecological thinking and illustrate this with a number of both theoretical and empirical examples. As ecologists strive to understand increasingly complex mechanisms and strive to work across multiple scales of spatio-temporal organization, concepts like the metacommunity can provide important insights that frequently contrast with those that would be obtained with more conventional approaches based on local communities alone.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Leibold","given":"M A","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Holyoak","given":"M","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Mouquet","given":"N","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Amarasekare","given":"P","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Chase","given":"J M","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Hoopes","given":"M F","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Holt","given":"R D","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Shurin","given":"J B","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Law","given":"R","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Tilman","given":"D","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Loreau","given":"M","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Gonzalez","given":"A","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Ecology Letters","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"7","issued":{"date-parts":[["2004","6","4"]]},"note":"https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2004.00608.x","page":"601-613","publisher":"John Wiley & Sons, Ltd","title":"The metacommunity concept: a framework for multi-scale community ecology","type":"article-journal","volume":"7"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=3c4e1a80-0a20-45b3-863a-fa3ca37620b5"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Leibold et al., 2004)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Leibold et al., 2004)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Leibold et al., 2004)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Leibold et al., 2004) y acuáticos ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1111/jbi.13986","ISSN":"0305-0270","abstract":"Abstract Aim Contemporary dispersal constraints and environmental conditions are broadly recognized as significant drivers of beta diversity patterns. However, beta diversity patterns may also reflect the legacy of past climatic and geological events. In this study, we investigated the relative importance of historical and contemporary factors as drivers of taxonomic, functional and phylogenetic beta diversity in Neotropical stream communities. Location The Colombian Orinoco basin. Taxon Diatoms and insects. Methods We estimated taxonomic, phylogenetic and functional beta diversity using Baselga's (BAS) and Podani's (POD) frameworks. Following both frameworks, we further partitioned every biodiversity facet into turnover and nestedness or richness difference components. Then, we used generalized linear models (GLM) to relate each biodiversity facet with environmental, spatial and historical factors. Results We found that both historical and contemporary factors affected current patterns of beta diversity. Historical factors and water pH and temperature had the strongest effect on beta diversity patterns, particularly for taxonomic and phylogenetic facets. GLM models performed better for insects than for diatoms in all three facets. Within communities, our analysis also revealed a partial congruence between BAS- and POD-based results. Main conclusions Due to their past geological history and contemporary environmental gradients, tropical montane streams are natural laboratories for disentangling the joint effects of ecological and biogeographical factors on biodiversity patterns. Our study reveals that present-day distribution patterns cannot be fully explained without accounting for the effects of past geological and climatic events on mountain landscapes. In the Neotropics, montane geology sets the stage for speciation and landscape formation, with which ecological (e.g., dispersal limitation) and environmental factors interact to generate spatial variation in species turnover.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"González‐Trujillo","given":"Juan David","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Saito","given":"Victor S","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Petsch","given":"Danielle K","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Muñoz","given":"Isabel","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Sabater","given":"Sergi","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Journal of Biogeography","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2021","1","26"]]},"note":"https://doi.org/10.1111/jbi.13986","page":"101-117","publisher":"John Wiley & Sons, Ltd","title":"Historical legacies and contemporary processes shape beta diversity in Neotropical montane streams","type":"article-journal","volume":"48"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=6b8f5dfe-30d0-44b9-8329-70563978aef7"]},{"id":"ITEM-2","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1111/ddi.12996","ISSN":"1366-9516","abstract":"Abstract Aim To identify and characterize the distribution of invertebrate taxa in the Orinoco basin and how their distribution affects the metacommunity structure along the river network. Location Meta and Guaviare sub-basins, Orinoco basin, Colombia, South America. Methods We characterized the invertebrate communities and environmental characteristics of 25 streams from six ecoregions in the Orinoco basin. The ecoregions present different historical evolution, altitude, slope, climate and vegetation features. We used multiplicative diversity partitioning to compare the contributions of riffle (α and ?1), stream (?2) and ecoregional (?3) scales to the overall gamma diversity of the basin. We also applied the Elements of Metacommunity Structure framework to delineate metacommunity types and a distance-based redundancy analysis to assess the relative relevance of environmental, spatial and ecoregional drivers in species compositions of invertebrate communities. Results Streams showed significant differences in community composition among the ecoregions. Several discrete pools of invertebrate taxa occurred in the basin that largely matched the distribution of the ecoregions. Consequently, the metacommunity in the basin resembled a Clementsian idealized structure. The species composition of invertebrate communities was mostly explained by ecoregion type and its interaction with the local environment, particularly its physiographic features. Main conclusions Historical and evolutionary processes have resulted in species pools differing between the ecoregions of the Orinoco basin. At the basin scale, the metacommunity structure seems to be constrained by ecoregional features rather than by spatial structure or the local environment. Hence, using the basin as a unit for biodiversity conservation and river management would not adequately reflect the diversity and distribution patterns in highly heterogeneous basins such as the Orinoco basin.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"González‐Trujillo","given":"Juan David","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Donato‐Rondon","given":"Jhon Ch.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Muñoz","given":"Isabel","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Sabater","given":"Sergi","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Diversity and Distributions","editor":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Santini","given":"Luca","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-2","issue":"1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2020","1","5"]]},"note":"https://doi.org/10.1111/ddi.12996","page":"49-61","publisher":"John Wiley & Sons, Ltd","title":"Historical processes constrain metacommunity structure by shaping different pools of invertebrate taxa within the Orinoco basin","type":"article-journal","volume":"26"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=1fda616b-aaa1-44de-8d5b-0d5d69055801"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(González‐Trujillo et al., 2021, 2020)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(González‐Trujillo et al., 2021, 2020)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(González‐Trujillo et al., 2021, 2020)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(González‐Trujillo et al., 2021, 2020). Bajo este marco conceptual, las comunidades locales son vistas como subconjuntos de un conjunto regional de especies (agrupación de todas las especies disponibles para colonizar) cuya composición de especies es regulada por la interacción entre la selección, la deriva ecológica (restringen por lo general la presencia de especies a escala local) y la dispersión (permite que las poblaciones se mantengan en localidades con condiciones adversas), y por lo tanto permite estudiar de manera directa la interacción entre procesos y su influencia directa sobre los patrones de diversidad que se pueden observar. Como aproximación complementaria a la ecología de comunidades, recientemente ha surgido un marco metodológico desde la teoría de redes: la metared. Haciendo un símil a la metacomunidad, una metared es definida como un conjunto de redes locales (sean tróficas, de polinización o facilitación) que están relacionadas por medio del movimiento y la dispersión de una o más especies. Esta aproximación permite estudiar directamente el rol que tienen las interacciones biológicas en los procesos de selección y deriva que moldean la diversidad de uno o más paisajes ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1111/j.1461-0248.2008.01271.x","ISBN":"1461-023X","ISSN":"1461023X","PMID":"19161432","abstract":"Graph theory is a body of mathematics dealing with problems of connectivity, flow, and routing in networks ranging from social groups to computer networks. Recently, network applications have erupted in many fields, and graph models are now being applied in landscape ecology and conservation biology, particularly for applications couched in metapopulation theory. In these applications, graph nodes represent habitat patches or local populations and links indicate functional connections among populations (i.e. via dispersal). Graphs are models of more complicated real systems, and so it is appropriate to review these applications from the perspective of modelling in general. Here we review recent applications of network theory to habitat patches in landscape mosaics. We consider (1) the conceptual model underlying these applications; (2) formalization and implementation of the graph model; (3) model parameterization; (4) model testing, insights, and predictions available through graph analyses; and (5) potential implications for conservation biology and related applications. In general, and for a variety of ecological systems, we find the graph model a remarkably robust framework for applications concerned with habitat connectivity. We close with suggestions for further work on the parameterization and validation of graph models, and point to some promising analytic insights.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Urban","given":"Dean L.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Minor","given":"Emily S.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Treml","given":"Eric A.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Schick","given":"Robert S.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Ecology Letters","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"3","issued":{"date-parts":[["2009"]]},"page":"260-273","title":"Graph models of habitat mosaics","type":"article-journal","volume":"12"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=e3213e50-53d4-466c-9337-1dcad233839d"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Urban et al., 2009)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Urban et al., 2009)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Urban et al., 2009)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Urban et al., 2009). Desde esta aproximación es posible caracterizar las interacciones de organismos y procesos ecológicos entre fragmentos e identificar sus funciones ecológicas ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1111/ele.12909","ISSN":"1461023X","abstract":"Abstract Mutualistic interactions repeatedly preserved across fragmented landscapes can scale-up to form a spatial metanetwork describing the distribution of interactions across patches. We explored the structure of a bird seed-dispersal (BSD) metanetwork in 16 Neotropical forest fragments to test whether a distinct subset of BSD-interactions may mediate landscape functional connectivity. The metanetwork is interaction-rich, modular and poorly connected, showing high beta-diversity and turnover of species and interactions. Interactions involving large-sized species were lost in fragments < 10 000 ha, indicating a strong filtering by habitat fragmentation on the functional diversity of BSD-interactions. Persistent interactions were performed by small-seeded, fast growing plant species and by generalist, small-bodied bird species able to cross the fragmented landscape. This reduced subset of interactions forms the metanetwork components persisting to defaunation and fragmentation, and may generate long-term deficits of carbon storage while delaying forest regeneration at the landscape level.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Emer","given":"Carine","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Galetti","given":"Mauro","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Pizo","given":"Marco A","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Guimarães","given":"Paulo R.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Moraes","given":"Suelen","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Piratelli","given":"Augusto","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Jordano","given":"Pedro","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Ecology Letters","editor":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Saavedra","given":"Serguei","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issue":"4","issued":{"date-parts":[["2018","4","1"]]},"note":"https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.12909","page":"484-493","publisher":"John Wiley & Sons, Ltd","title":"Seed-dispersal interactions in fragmented landscapes - a metanetwork approach","type":"article-journal","volume":"21"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=636b3456-4e46-4780-9a8b-fdac279d964c"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Emer et al., 2018)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Emer et al., 2018)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Emer et al., 2018)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Emer et al., 2018), y por ende, es un concepto de gran importancia para dilucidar procesos ecológicos en paisajes fragmentados; que consisten usualmente en comunidades o poblaciones espacialmente estructuradas, que ocupan parches de hábitat aislados en diferente grado, en una matriz con diferentes elementos y calidad ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1111/brv.12000","ISBN":"1464-7931","ISSN":"14647931","PMID":"23176626","abstract":"Connectivity is classically considered an emergent property of landscapes encapsulating individuals' flows across space. However, its operational use requires a precise understanding of why and how organisms disperse. Such movements, and hence landscape connectivity, will obviously vary according to both organism properties and landscape features. We review whether landscape connectivity estimates could gain in both precision and generality by incorporating three fundamental outcomes of dispersal theory. Firstly, dispersal is a multi-causal process; its restriction to an 'escape reaction' to environmental unsuitability is an oversimplification, as dispersing individuals can leave excellent quality habitat patches or stay in poor-quality habitats according to the relative costs and benefits of dispersal and philopatry. Secondly, species, populations and individuals do not always react similarly to those cues that trigger dispersal, which sometimes results in contrasting dispersal strategies. Finally, dispersal is a major component of fitness and is thus under strong selective pressures, which could generate rapid adaptations of dispersal strategies. Such evolutionary responses will entail spatiotemporal variation in landscape connectivity. We thus strongly recommend the use of genetic tools to: (i) assess gene flow intensity and direction among populations in a given landscape; and (ii) accurately estimate landscape features impacting gene flow, and hence landscape connectivity. Such approaches will provide the basic data for planning corridors or stepping stones aiming at (re)connecting local populations of a given species in a given landscape. This strategy is clearly species- and landscape-specific. But we suggest that the ecological network in a given landscape could be designed by stacking up such linkages designed for several species living in different ecosystems. This procedure relies on the use of umbrella species that are representative of other species living in the same ecosystem.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Baguette","given":"Michel","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Blanchet","given":"Simon","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Legrand","given":"Delphine","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Stevens","given":"Virginie M.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Turlure","given":"Camille","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Biological Reviews","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"2","issued":{"date-parts":[["2013"]]},"page":"310-326","title":"Individual dispersal, landscape connectivity and ecological networks","type":"article-journal","volume":"88"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=ea9b4f04-ae6b-4eb9-980d-a1aedf5dbcc1"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Baguette et al., 2013)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Baguette et al., 2013)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Baguette et al., 2013)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Baguette et al., 2013). Dispersión de semillas La frugivoría es una interacción planta-animal de gran importancia que aporta a la regeneración y mantenimiento de las comunidades vegetales en todo el mundo ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1371/journal.pone.0066993","ISSN":"1932-6203","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Aslan","given":"Clare E.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Zavaleta","given":"Erika S.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Tershy","given":"Bernie","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Croll","given":"Donald","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"PLoS ONE","editor":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Nogues-Bravo","given":"David","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issue":"6","issued":{"date-parts":[["2013","6","19"]]},"page":"e66993","title":"Mutualism Disruption Threatens Global Plant Biodiversity: A Systematic Review","type":"article-journal","volume":"8"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=db75444d-8636-4645-a264-f1005a92bdd1"]},{"id":"ITEM-2","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.38.091206.095818","ISSN":"1543-592X","abstract":"The mutually beneficial interactions between plants and their animal pollinators and seed dispersers have been paramount in the generation of Earth's biodiversity. These mutualistic interactions often involve dozens or even hundreds of species that form complex networks of interdependences. Understanding how coevolution proceeds in these highly diversified mutualisms among free-living species presents a conceptual challenge. Recent work has led to the unambiguous conclusion that mutualistic networks are very heterogeneous (the bulk of the species have a few interactions, but a few species are much more connected than expected by chance), nested (specialists interact with subsets of the species with which generalists interact), and built on weak and asymmetric links among species. Both ecological variables (e.g., phenology, local abundance, and geographic range) and past evolutionary history may explain such network patterns. Network structure has important implications for the coexistence and stability of species as well as for the coevolutionary process. Mutualistic networks can thus be regarded as the architecture of biodiversity.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Bascompte","given":"Jordi","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Jordano","given":"Pedro","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics","id":"ITEM-2","issue":"1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2007","12","1"]]},"page":"567-593","title":"Plant-Animal Mutualistic Networks: The Architecture of Biodiversity","type":"article-journal","volume":"38"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=9429af95-275e-4d74-8bef-2260c2149671"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Aslan et al., 2013; Bascompte and Jordano, 2007)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Aslan et al., 2013; Bascompte and Jordano, 2007)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Aslan et al., 2013; Bascompte and Jordano, 2007)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Aslan et al., 2013; Bascompte and Jordano, 2007). Por medio de sus roles como vectores de dispersión y como depredadores de semillas, los vertebrados frugívoros pueden afectar positiva y negativamente el reclutamiento de plantas, mientras que la presencia de frutas y semillas influencian la abundancia y distribución de los dispersores ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1017/S0266467409990058","ISSN":"0266-4674","abstract":"Fruit and seed consumers can both positively and negatively affect plant recruitment through seed dispersion and seed predation, respectively. In turn, fruits influence the abundance and distribution of consumers sustained by local plant assemblages. These interactions are key processes in plant recruitment and the dynamics of tropical forests, where most plants depend on dispersal by frugivorous animals (Corlett 1998). An understanding of these interactions and the functional role of particular seed-dispersing animals is increasingly important nowadays, given that human impact on tropical forest ecosystems may negatively impact seed dispersal and forest regeneration in both natural and human-altered forests (Wright et al . 2000).","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Wells","given":"Konstans","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Corlett","given":"Richard T.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Lakim","given":"Maklarin B.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"V.","family":"Kalko","given":"Elisabeth K.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Pfeiffer","given":"Martin","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Journal of Tropical Ecology","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"5","issued":{"date-parts":[["2009","9","1"]]},"page":"555-558","title":"Seed consumption by small mammals from Borneo","type":"article-journal","volume":"25"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=0c2e9902-5d27-49d1-9a93-1c002947140e"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Wells et al., 2009)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Wells et al., 2009)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Wells et al., 2009)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Wells et al., 2009). Por lo tanto, estas interacciones son cruciales para las dinámicas poblacionales, la estructura genética, las interacciones bióticas, los rangos de distribución de las especies y el mantenimiento de los patrones de diversidad ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1111/j.1365-2656.2008.01460.x","ISSN":"00218790","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Herrera","given":"Carlos","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"chapter-number":"7","container-title":"Plant–animal interactions: an evolutionary approach","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2002","1"]]},"publisher":"Blackwell Science Ltd","title":"Seed dispersal by vertebrates","type":"chapter"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=877dd8a3-689a-478a-9e83-3f3d3e5d8a32"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Herrera, 2002)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Herrera, 2002)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Herrera, 2002)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Herrera, 2002). Sin embargo, todos estos procesos ecológicos pueden verse alterados y amenazados por la pérdida de hábitat y la fragmentación de los bosques a través de la disrupción de la conectividad entre los parches remanentes, cambios en las formas, áreas y bordes de los parches ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1890/15-0734.1","ISSN":"0012-9658","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Herrmann","given":"John D.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Carlo","given":"Tomás A.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Brudvig","given":"Lars A.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Damschen","given":"Ellen I.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Haddad","given":"Nick M.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Levey","given":"Douglas J.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Orrock","given":"John L.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Tewksbury","given":"Joshua J.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Ecology","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"5","issued":{"date-parts":[["2016","5","9"]]},"page":"1274-1282","title":"Connectivity from a different perspective: comparing seed dispersal kernels in connected vs. unfragmented landscapes","type":"article-journal","volume":"97"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=bd247202-7cc3-4d2d-8d8d-f20530ed757d"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Herrmann et al., 2016)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Herrmann et al., 2016)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Herrmann et al., 2016)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Herrmann et al., 2016) y la pérdida de diversidad ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1098/rsbl.2010.0986","ISSN":"1744-9561","abstract":"The 5th Symposium on Frugivores and Seed Dispersal, held in Montpellier (France), 13–18 June 2010, brought together more than 220 researchers exemplifying a wide diversity of approaches to the study of frugivory and dispersal of seeds. Following Ted Fleming and Alejandro Estrada's initiative in 1985, this event was a celebration of the 25th anniversary of the first meeting in Veracruz, Mexico. Frugivory and seed dispersal are active research areas that have diversified in multiple directions since 1985 to include evolution (e.g. phylogenetic diversity and dispersal adaptations), physiology (e.g. sensory cues and digestion), landscape ecology (movement patterns), molecular ecology (e.g. gene flow, genetic diversity and structure), community ecology (e.g. mutualistic interaction networks) and conservation biology (effects of hunting, fragmentation, invasion and extinction), among others. This meeting provided an opportunity to assess conceptual and methodological progress, to present ever more sophisticated insights into frugivory in animals and dispersal patterns in plants, and to report the advances made in examining the mechanisms and consequences of seed dispersal for plants and frugivores.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Jordano","given":"Pedro","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Forget","given":"Pierre-Michel","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Lambert","given":"Joanna E.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Böhning-Gaese","given":"Katrin","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Traveset","given":"Anna","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Wright","given":"S. Joseph","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Biology Letters","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"3","issued":{"date-parts":[["2011","6","23"]]},"page":"321-323","title":"Frugivores and seed dispersal: mechanisms and consequences for biodiversity of a key ecological interaction","type":"article-journal","volume":"7"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=e2a36823-9ec1-48fc-a7dc-0cc4d48ca1a9"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Jordano et al., 2011)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Jordano et al., 2011)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Jordano et al., 2011)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Jordano et al., 2011). PLANTEAMIENTO DEL PROBLEMA Los efectos de la fragmentación del hábitat pueden variar dependiendo de la conectividad del paisaje y de las interacciones entre especies ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1111/1365-2745.12306","ISSN":"00220477","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Enright","given":"Neal J.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Fontaine","given":"Joseph B.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Lamont","given":"Byron B.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Miller","given":"Ben P.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Westcott","given":"Vanessa C.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Journal of Ecology","editor":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Cornelissen","given":"Hans","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issue":"6","issued":{"date-parts":[["2014","11","1"]]},"page":"1572-1581","title":"Resistance and resilience to changing climate and fire regime depend on plant functional traits","type":"article-journal","volume":"102"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=d44a2502-ff6f-36cf-9224-8d190f60991f"]},{"id":"ITEM-2","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1111/cobi.13422","ISSN":"0888-8892","abstract":"Abstract Genetic diversity is a key factor for population survival and evolution. However, anthropogenic habitat disturbance can erode it, making populations more prone to extinction. Aiming to assess the global effects of habitat disturbance on plant genetic variation, we conducted a meta-analysis based on 92 case studies obtained from published literature. We compared the effects of habitat fragmentation and degradation on plant allelic richness and gene diversity (equivalent to expected heterozygosity) and tested whether such changes are sensitive to different life-forms, life spans, mating systems, and commonness. Anthropogenic disturbance had a negative effect on allelic richness, but not on gene diversity. Habitat fragmentation had a negative effect on genetic variation, whereas habitat degradation had no effect. When we examined the individual effects in fragmented habitats, allelic richness and gene diversity decreased, but this decrease was strongly dependent on certain plant traits. Specifically, common long-lived trees and self-incompatible species were more susceptible to allelic richness loss. Conversely, gene diversity decreased in common short-lived species (herbs) with self-compatible reproduction. In a wider geographical context, tropical plant communities were more sensitive to allelic richness loss, whereas temperate plant communities were more sensitive to gene diversity loss. Our synthesis showed complex responses to habitat disturbance among plant species. In many cases, the absence of effects could be the result of the time elapsed since the disturbance event or reproductive systems favoring self-pollination, but attention must be paid to those plant species that are more susceptible to losing genetic diversity, and appropriate conservation should be actions taken.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"V","family":"González","given":"Alejandra","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Gómez‐Silva","given":"Valeria","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Ramírez","given":"María José","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Fontúrbel","given":"Francisco E","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Conservation Biology","id":"ITEM-2","issue":"3","issued":{"date-parts":[["2020","6","28"]]},"note":"https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.13422","page":"711-720","publisher":"John Wiley & Sons, Ltd","title":"Meta‐analysis of the differential effects of habitat fragmentation and degradation on plant genetic diversity","type":"article-journal","volume":"34"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=33c00f98-a7a1-4959-be0e-e500d0ee4ada"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Enright et al., 2014; González et al., 2020)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Enright et al., 2014; González et al., 2020)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Enright et al., 2014; González et al., 2020)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Enright et al., 2014; González et al., 2020), por lo que diseñar e implementar acciones de conservación y restauración es una tarea compleja que requiere de estudios que integren la dispersión y el rol funcional de las especies que componen una comunidad. En la actualidad, sin embargo, la mayoría de estudios en zonas tropicales (incluida Colombia) se han centrado en evaluar los impactos de la fragmentación sobre la persistencia de las poblaciones o los patrones de ocupación de especies focales relativos al tamaño del fragmento y sus condiciones ambientales ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.3390/f9060305","ISBN":"1999-4907","ISSN":"1999-4907","abstract":"Amazonia is home to more than half of the world’s remaining tropical forests, playing a key role as reservoirs of carbon and biodiversity. However, whether at a slower or faster pace, continued deforestation causes forest fragmentation in this region. Thus, understanding the relationship between forest fragmentation and fire incidence and intensity in this region is critical. Here, we use MODIS Active Fire Product (MCD14ML, Collection 6) as a proxy of forest fire incidence and intensity (measured as Fire Radiative Power—FRP), and the Brazilian official Land-use and Land-cover Map to understand the relationship among deforestation, fragmentation, and forest fire on a deforestation frontier in the Brazilian Amazonia. Our results showed that forest fire incidence and intensity vary with levels of habitat loss and forest fragmentation. About 95% of active fires and the most intense ones (FRP > 500 megawatts) were found in the first kilometre from the edges in forest areas. Changes made in 2012 in the Brazilian main law regulating the conservation of forests within private properties reduced the obligation to recover illegally deforested areas, thus allowing for the maintenance of fragmented areas in the Brazilian Amazonia. Our results reinforce the need to guarantee low levels of fragmentation in the Brazilian Amazonia in order to avoid the degradation of its forests by fire and the related carbon emissions.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Silva Junior","given":"Celso","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Aragão","given":"Luiz","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Fonseca","given":"Marisa","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Almeida","given":"Catherine","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Vedovato","given":"Laura","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Anderson","given":"Liana","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Forests","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"6","issued":{"date-parts":[["2018","6","1"]]},"page":"305","title":"Deforestation-Induced Fragmentation Increases Forest Fire Occurrence in Central Brazilian Amazonia","type":"article-journal","volume":"9"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=8fb12032-aad1-4141-bf11-831fb89d8569"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Silva Junior et al., 2018)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Silva Junior et al., 2018)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Silva Junior et al., 2018)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Silva Junior et al., 2018), dejando a un lado el posible efecto de la matriz del paisaje y de la interacción entre especies residentes y visitantes. Por lo tanto, considerando que la pérdida de conectividad entre fragmentos cercanos, o la perdida de las interacciones con animales dispersores de semillas podría tener un efecto directo sobre el reclutamiento de las plántulas de varias especies, y en consecuencia, generar una pérdida generalizada de diversidad sin importar que el tamaño del fragmento y que sus condiciones ambientales permanezcan iguales ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1111/j.1461-0248.2004.00608.x","ISSN":"1461023X","abstract":"Abstract The metacommunity concept is an important way to think about linkages between different spatial scales in ecology. Here we review current understanding about this concept. We first investigate issues related to its definition as a set of local communities that are linked by dispersal of multiple potentially interacting species. We then identify four paradigms for metacommunities: the patch-dynamic view, the species-sorting view, the mass effects view and the neutral view, that each emphasizes different processes of potential importance in metacommunities. These have somewhat distinct intellectual histories and we discuss elements related to their potential future synthesis. We then use this framework to discuss why the concept is useful in modifying existing ecological thinking and illustrate this with a number of both theoretical and empirical examples. As ecologists strive to understand increasingly complex mechanisms and strive to work across multiple scales of spatio-temporal organization, concepts like the metacommunity can provide important insights that frequently contrast with those that would be obtained with more conventional approaches based on local communities alone.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Leibold","given":"M A","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Holyoak","given":"M","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Mouquet","given":"N","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Amarasekare","given":"P","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Chase","given":"J M","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Hoopes","given":"M F","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Holt","given":"R D","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Shurin","given":"J B","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Law","given":"R","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Tilman","given":"D","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Loreau","given":"M","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Gonzalez","given":"A","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Ecology Letters","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"7","issued":{"date-parts":[["2004","6","4"]]},"note":"https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2004.00608.x","page":"601-613","publisher":"John Wiley & Sons, Ltd","title":"The metacommunity concept: a framework for multi-scale community ecology","type":"article-journal","volume":"7"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=3c4e1a80-0a20-45b3-863a-fa3ca37620b5"]},{"id":"ITEM-2","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1111/j.1654-1103.2012.01418.x","ISSN":"11009233","abstract":"Abstract Questions What are the main features of the seed rain in a fragmented Atlantic forest landscape? Can seed rain species attributes (life form, dispersal mode, successional status) relate to the spatial arrangement (size and number of fragments, edge density and presence of corridor) of forest fragments in the landscape? How does the rain forest landscape structure affect the seed rain? Location Atlantic rainforest, S?o Paulo State, Southeastern Brazil. Methods Seed rain samples were collected monthly throughout 1 yr, counted, identified and classified according to species dispersal mode, successional status and life form. Seed rain composition was compared with woody species near the seed traps. Relationships between seed rain composition and landscape spatial arrangement (fragment area, presence of corridor, number of fragments in the surroundings, proximity of fragments, and edge density) were tested using canonical correspondence analysis (CCA). Results We collected 20 142 seeds belonging to 115 taxa, most of them early successional and anemochorous trees. In general, the seed rain had a species composition distinct from that of the nearby forest tree community. Small isolated fragments contained more seeds, mainly of anemochorous, epiphytic and early-successional species; large fragments showed higher association with zoochorous and late-successional species compared to small fragments. The CCA significantly distinguished the species dispersal mode according to fragment size and isolation, anemochorous species being associated to small and isolated fragments, and zoochorous species to larger areas and fragment aggregation. Nevertheless, a gradient driven by proximity (PROX) and edge density (ED) segregated lianas (in the positive extremity), early successional and epiphyte species (in the negative end); large fragments were positively associated to PROX and ED. Conclusions The results highlight the importance of the size and spatial arrangement of forest patches to promote habitat connectivity and improve the flux of animal-dispersed seeds. Landscape structure controls seed fluxes and affects plant dispersal capacity, potentially influencing the composition and structure of forest fragments. The seed rain composition may be used to assess the effects of landscape spatial structure on plant assemblages, and provide relevant information for biodiversity conservation.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Jesus","given":"Flávia M","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Pivello","given":"Vânia R","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Meirelles","given":"Sérgio T","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Franco","given":"Geraldo A.D.C.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Metzger","given":"Jean Paul","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Journal of Vegetation Science","editor":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Partel","given":"Meelis","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-2","issue":"6","issued":{"date-parts":[["2012","12","1"]]},"note":"https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1654-1103.2012.01418.x","page":"1126-1136","publisher":"John Wiley & Sons, Ltd","title":"The importance of landscape structure for seed dispersal in rain forest fragments","type":"article-journal","volume":"23"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=7fe05dba-0e75-443d-8354-25401ab505eb"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Jesus et al., 2012; Leibold et al., 2004)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Jesus et al., 2012; Leibold et al., 2004)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Jesus et al., 2012; Leibold et al., 2004)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Jesus et al., 2012; Leibold et al., 2004), es de gran prioridad hacer evaluaciones integrales que incluyan el posible rol que tienen tanto la estructura del paisaje como las interacciones bióticas. Así pues, en este proyecto se busca hacer una evaluación integral desde la ecología de metacomunidades y, en particular, desde una aproximación de las metaredes, que responda a: ¿cómo afecta la configuración espacial de los fragmentos la diversidad de mamíferos en paisajes de bosque amazónico? y ¿cuál es el efecto de la fragmentación sobre las interacciones que ocurren entre plantas y dispersores de semillas?