Abstract
Research in global change ecology relies heavily on global climatic grids derived from estimates of air temperature in open areas at around 2 m above the ground. These climatic grids do not reflect conditions below vegetation canopies and near the ground surface, where critical ecosystem functions occur and most terrestrial species reside. Here, we provide global maps of soil temperature and bioclimatic variables at a 1-km2 resolution for 0–5 and 5–15 cm soil depth. These maps were created by calculating the difference (i.e. offset) between in situ soil temperature measurements, based on time series from over 1200 1-km2 pixels (summarized from 8519 unique temperature sensors) across all the world's major terrestrial biomes, and coarse-grained air temperature estimates from ERA5-Land (an atmospheric reanalysis by the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts). We show that mean annual soil temperature differs markedly from the corresponding gridded air temperature, by up to 10°C (mean = 3.0 ± 2.1°C), with substantial variation across biomes and seasons. Over the year, soils in cold and/or dry biomes are substantially warmer (+3.6 ± 2.3°C) than gridded air temperature, whereas soils in warm and humid environments are on average slightly cooler (−0.7 ± 2.3°C). The observed substantial and biome-specific offsets emphasize that the projected impacts of climate and climate change on near-surface biodiversity and ecosystem functioning are inaccurately assessed when air rather than soil temperature is used, especially in cold environments. The global soil-related bioclimatic variables provided here are an important step forward for any application in ecology and related disciplines. Nevertheless, we highlight the need to fill remaining geographic gaps by collecting more in situ measurements of microclimate conditions to further enhance the spatiotemporal resolution of global soil temperature products for ecological applications.
| Original language | English |
|---|---|
| Pages (from-to) | 3110-3144 |
| Number of pages | 35 |
| Journal | Global Change Biology |
| Volume | 28 |
| Issue number | 9 |
| DOIs | |
| State | Published - May 2022 |
UN SDGs
This output contributes to the following UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
-
SDG 13 Climate Action -
SDG 15 Life on Land
Keywords
- bioclimatic variables
- global maps
- microclimate
- near-surface temperatures
- soil temperature
- soil-dwelling organisms
- temperature offset
- weather stations
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In: Global Change Biology, Vol. 28, No. 9, 05.2022, p. 3110-3144.
Research output: Contribution to journal › Review article › peer-review
TY - JOUR
T1 - Global maps of soil temperature
AU - Lembrechts, Jonas J.
AU - van den Hoogen, Johan
AU - Aalto, Juha
AU - Ashcroft, Michael B.
AU - De Frenne, Pieter
AU - Kemppinen, Julia
AU - Kopecký, Martin
AU - Luoto, Miska
AU - Maclean, Ilya M.D.
AU - Crowther, Thomas W.
AU - Bailey, Joseph J.
AU - Haesen, Stef
AU - Klinges, David H.
AU - Niittynen, Pekka
AU - Scheffers, Brett R.
AU - Van Meerbeek, Koenraad
AU - Aartsma, Peter
AU - Abdalaze, Otar
AU - Abedi, Mehdi
AU - Aerts, Rien
AU - Ahmadian, Negar
AU - Ahrends, Antje
AU - Alatalo, Juha M.
AU - Alexander, Jake M.
AU - Allonsius, Camille Nina
AU - Altman, Jan
AU - Ammann, Christof
AU - Andres, Christian
AU - Andrews, Christopher
AU - Ardö, Jonas
AU - Arriga, Nicola
AU - Arzac, Alberto
AU - Aschero, Valeria
AU - Assis, Rafael L.
AU - Assmann, Jakob Johann
AU - Bader, Maaike Y.
AU - Bahalkeh, Khadijeh
AU - Barančok, Peter
AU - Barrio, Isabel C.
AU - Barros, Agustina
AU - Barthel, Matti
AU - Basham, Edmund W.
AU - Bauters, Marijn
AU - Bazzichetto, Manuele
AU - Marchesini, Luca Belelli
AU - Bell, Michael C.
AU - Benavides, Juan C.
AU - Benito Alonso, José Luis
AU - Berauer, Bernd J.
AU - Bjerke, Jarle W.
AU - Björk, Robert G.
AU - Björkman, Mats P.
AU - Björnsdóttir, Katrin
AU - Blonder, Benjamin
AU - Boeckx, Pascal
AU - Boike, Julia
AU - Bokhorst, Stef
AU - Brum, Bárbara N.S.
AU - Brůna, Josef
AU - Buchmann, Nina
AU - Buysse, Pauline
AU - Camargo, José Luís
AU - Campoe, Otávio C.
AU - Candan, Onur
AU - Canessa, Rafaella
AU - Cannone, Nicoletta
AU - Carbognani, Michele
AU - Carnicer, Jofre
AU - Casanova-Katny, Angélica
AU - Cesarz, Simone
AU - Chojnicki, Bogdan
AU - Choler, Philippe
AU - Chown, Steven L.
AU - Cifuentes, Edgar F.
AU - Čiliak, Marek
AU - Contador, Tamara
AU - Convey, Peter
AU - Cooper, Elisabeth J.
AU - Cremonese, Edoardo
AU - Curasi, Salvatore R.
AU - Curtis, Robin
AU - Cutini, Maurizio
AU - Dahlberg, C. Johan
AU - Daskalova, Gergana N.
AU - de Pablo, Miguel Angel
AU - Della Chiesa, Stefano
AU - Dengler, Jürgen
AU - Deronde, Bart
AU - Descombes, Patrice
AU - Di Cecco, Valter
AU - Di Musciano, Michele
AU - Dick, Jan
AU - Dimarco, Romina D.
AU - Dolezal, Jiri
AU - Dorrepaal, Ellen
AU - Dušek, Jiří
AU - Eisenhauer, Nico
AU - Eklundh, Lars
AU - Erickson, Todd E.
AU - Erschbamer, Brigitta
AU - Eugster, Werner
AU - Ewers, Robert M.
AU - Exton, Dan A.
AU - Fanin, Nicolas
AU - Fazlioglu, Fatih
AU - Feigenwinter, Iris
AU - Fenu, Giuseppe
AU - Ferlian, Olga
AU - Fernández Calzado, M. Rosa
AU - Fernández-Pascual, Eduardo
AU - Finckh, Manfred
AU - Higgens, Rebecca Finger
AU - Forte, T'ai G.W.
AU - Freeman, Erika C.
AU - Frei, Esther R.
AU - Fuentes-Lillo, Eduardo
AU - García, Rafael A.
AU - García, María B.
AU - Géron, Charly
AU - Gharun, Mana
AU - Ghosn, Dany
AU - Gigauri, Khatuna
AU - Gobin, Anne
AU - Goded, Ignacio
AU - Goeckede, Mathias
AU - Gottschall, Felix
AU - Goulding, Keith
AU - Govaert, Sanne
AU - Graae, Bente Jessen
AU - Greenwood, Sarah
AU - Greiser, Caroline
AU - Grelle, Achim
AU - Guénard, Benoit
AU - Guglielmin, Mauro
AU - Guillemot, Joannès
AU - Haase, Peter
AU - Haider, Sylvia
AU - Halbritter, Aud H.
AU - Hamid, Maroof
AU - Hammerle, Albin
AU - Hampe, Arndt
AU - Haugum, Siri V.
AU - Hederová, Lucia
AU - Heinesch, Bernard
AU - Helfter, Carole
AU - Hepenstrick, Daniel
AU - Herberich, Maximiliane
AU - Herbst, Mathias
AU - Hermanutz, Luise
AU - Hik, David S.
AU - Hoffrén, Raúl
AU - Homeier, Jürgen
AU - Hörtnagl, Lukas
AU - Høye, Toke T.
AU - Hrbacek, Filip
AU - Hylander, Kristoffer
AU - Iwata, Hiroki
AU - Jackowicz-Korczynski, Marcin Antoni
AU - Jactel, Hervé
AU - Järveoja, Järvi
AU - Jastrzębowski, Szymon
AU - Jentsch, Anke
AU - Jiménez, Juan J.
AU - Jónsdóttir, Ingibjörg S.
AU - Jucker, Tommaso
AU - Jump, Alistair S.
AU - Juszczak, Radoslaw
AU - Kanka, Róbert
AU - Kašpar, Vít
AU - Kazakis, George
AU - Kelly, Julia
AU - Khuroo, Anzar A.
AU - Klemedtsson, Leif
AU - Klisz, Marcin
AU - Kljun, Natascha
AU - Knohl, Alexander
AU - Kobler, Johannes
AU - Kollár, Jozef
AU - Kotowska, Martyna M.
AU - Kovács, Bence
AU - Kreyling, Juergen
AU - Lamprecht, Andrea
AU - Lang, Simone I.
AU - Larson, Christian
AU - Larson, Keith
AU - Laska, Kamil
AU - le Maire, Guerric
AU - Leihy, Rachel I.
AU - Lens, Luc
AU - Liljebladh, Bengt
AU - Lohila, Annalea
AU - Lorite, Juan
AU - Loubet, Benjamin
AU - Lynn, Joshua
AU - Macek, Martin
AU - Mackenzie, Roy
AU - Magliulo, Enzo
AU - Maier, Regine
AU - Malfasi, Francesco
AU - Máliš, František
AU - Man, Matěj
AU - Manca, Giovanni
AU - Manco, Antonio
AU - Manise, Tanguy
AU - Manolaki, Paraskevi
AU - Marciniak, Felipe
AU - Matula, Radim
AU - Mazzolari, Ana Clara
AU - Medinets, Sergiy
AU - Medinets, Volodymyr
AU - Meeussen, Camille
AU - Merinero, Sonia
AU - Mesquita, Rita de Cássia Guimarães
AU - Meusburger, Katrin
AU - Meysman, Filip J.R.
AU - Michaletz, Sean T.
AU - Milbau, Ann
AU - Moiseev, Dmitry
AU - Moiseev, Pavel
AU - Mondoni, Andrea
AU - Monfries, Ruth
AU - Montagnani, Leonardo
AU - Moriana-Armendariz, Mikel
AU - Morra di Cella, Umberto
AU - Mörsdorf, Martin
AU - Mosedale, Jonathan R.
AU - Muffler, Lena
AU - Muñoz-Rojas, Miriam
AU - Myers, Jonathan A.
AU - Myers-Smith, Isla H.
AU - Nagy, Laszlo
AU - Nardino, Marianna
AU - Naujokaitis-Lewis, Ilona
AU - Newling, Emily
AU - Nicklas, Lena
AU - Niedrist, Georg
AU - Niessner, Armin
AU - Nilsson, Mats B.
AU - Normand, Signe
AU - Nosetto, Marcelo D.
AU - Nouvellon, Yann
AU - Nuñez, Martin A.
AU - Ogaya, Romà
AU - Ogée, Jérôme
AU - Okello, Joseph
AU - Olejnik, Janusz
AU - Olesen, Jørgen Eivind
AU - Opedal, Øystein H.
AU - Orsenigo, Simone
AU - Palaj, Andrej
AU - Pampuch, Timo
AU - Panov, Alexey V.
AU - Pärtel, Meelis
AU - Pastor, Ada
AU - Pauchard, Aníbal
AU - Pauli, Harald
AU - Pavelka, Marian
AU - Pearse, William D.
AU - Peichl, Matthias
AU - Pellissier, Loïc
AU - Penczykowski, Rachel M.
AU - Penuelas, Josep
AU - Petit Bon, Matteo
AU - Petraglia, Alessandro
AU - Phartyal, Shyam S.
AU - Phoenix, Gareth K.
AU - Pio, Casimiro
AU - Pitacco, Andrea
AU - Pitteloud, Camille
AU - Plichta, Roman
AU - Porro, Francesco
AU - Portillo-Estrada, Miguel
AU - Poulenard, Jérôme
AU - Poyatos, Rafael
AU - Prokushkin, Anatoly S.
AU - Puchalka, Radoslaw
AU - Pușcaș, Mihai
AU - Radujković, Dajana
AU - Randall, Krystal
AU - Ratier Backes, Amanda
AU - Remmele, Sabine
AU - Remmers, Wolfram
AU - Renault, David
AU - Risch, Anita C.
AU - Rixen, Christian
AU - Robinson, Sharon A.
AU - Robroek, Bjorn J.M.
AU - Rocha, Adrian V.
AU - Rossi, Christian
AU - Rossi, Graziano
AU - Roupsard, Olivier
AU - Rubtsov, Alexey V.
AU - Saccone, Patrick
AU - Sagot, Clotilde
AU - Sallo Bravo, Jhonatan
AU - Santos, Cinthya C.
AU - Sarneel, Judith M.
AU - Scharnweber, Tobias
AU - Schmeddes, Jonas
AU - Schmidt, Marius
AU - Scholten, Thomas
AU - Schuchardt, Max
AU - Schwartz, Naomi
AU - Scott, Tony
AU - Seeber, Julia
AU - Segalin de Andrade, Ana Cristina
AU - Seipel, Tim
AU - Semenchuk, Philipp
AU - Senior, Rebecca A.
AU - Serra-Diaz, Josep M.
AU - Sewerniak, Piotr
AU - Shekhar, Ankit
AU - Sidenko, Nikita V.
AU - Siebicke, Lukas
AU - Siegwart Collier, Laura
AU - Simpson, Elizabeth
AU - Siqueira, David P.
AU - Sitková, Zuzana
AU - Six, Johan
AU - Smiljanic, Marko
AU - Smith, Stuart W.
AU - Smith-Tripp, Sarah
AU - Somers, Ben
AU - Sørensen, Mia Vedel
AU - Souza, José João L.L.
AU - Souza, Bartolomeu Israel
AU - Souza Dias, Arildo
AU - Spasojevic, Marko J.
AU - Speed, James D.M.
AU - Spicher, Fabien
AU - Stanisci, Angela
AU - Steinbauer, Klaus
AU - Steinbrecher, Rainer
AU - Steinwandter, Michael
AU - Stemkovski, Michael
AU - Stephan, Jörg G.
AU - Stiegler, Christian
AU - Stoll, Stefan
AU - Svátek, Martin
AU - Svoboda, Miroslav
AU - Tagesson, Torbern
AU - Tanentzap, Andrew J.
AU - Tanneberger, Franziska
AU - Theurillat, Jean Paul
AU - Thomas, Haydn J.D.
AU - Thomas, Andrew D.
AU - Tielbörger, Katja
AU - Tomaselli, Marcello
AU - Treier, Urs Albert
AU - Trouillier, Mario
AU - Turtureanu, Pavel Dan
AU - Tutton, Rosamond
AU - Tyystjärvi, Vilna A.
AU - Ueyama, Masahito
AU - Ujházy, Karol
AU - Ujházyová, Mariana
AU - Uogintas, Domas
AU - Urban, Anastasiya V.
AU - Urban, Josef
AU - Urbaniak, Marek
AU - Ursu, Tudor Mihai
AU - Vaccari, Francesco Primo
AU - Van de Vondel, Stijn
AU - van den Brink, Liesbeth
AU - Van Geel, Maarten
AU - Vandvik, Vigdis
AU - Vangansbeke, Pieter
AU - Varlagin, Andrej
AU - Veen, G. F.
AU - Veenendaal, Elmar
AU - Venn, Susanna E.
AU - Verbeeck, Hans
AU - Verbrugggen, Erik
AU - Verheijen, Frank G.A.
AU - Villar, Luis
AU - Vitale, Luca
AU - Vittoz, Pascal
AU - Vives-Ingla, Maria
AU - von Oppen, Jonathan
AU - Walz, Josefine
AU - Wang, Runxi
AU - Wang, Yifeng
AU - Way, Robert G.
AU - Wedegärtner, Ronja E.M.
AU - Weigel, Robert
AU - Wild, Jan
AU - Wilkinson, Matthew
AU - Wilmking, Martin
AU - Wingate, Lisa
AU - Winkler, Manuela
AU - Wipf, Sonja
AU - Wohlfahrt, Georg
AU - Xenakis, Georgios
AU - Yang, Yan
AU - Yu, Zicheng
AU - Yu, Kailiang
AU - Zellweger, Florian
AU - Zhang, Jian
AU - Zhang, Zhaochen
AU - Zhao, Peng
AU - Ziemblińska, Klaudia
AU - Zimmermann, Reiner
AU - Zong, Shengwei
AU - Zyryanov, Viacheslav I.
AU - Nijs, Ivan
AU - Lenoir, Jonathan
N1 - Publisher Copyright: © 2022 The Authors. Global Change Biology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
PY - 2022/5
Y1 - 2022/5
N2 - Research in global change ecology relies heavily on global climatic grids derived from estimates of air temperature in open areas at around 2 m above the ground. These climatic grids do not reflect conditions below vegetation canopies and near the ground surface, where critical ecosystem functions occur and most terrestrial species reside. Here, we provide global maps of soil temperature and bioclimatic variables at a 1-km2 resolution for 0–5 and 5–15 cm soil depth. These maps were created by calculating the difference (i.e. offset) between in situ soil temperature measurements, based on time series from over 1200 1-km2 pixels (summarized from 8519 unique temperature sensors) across all the world's major terrestrial biomes, and coarse-grained air temperature estimates from ERA5-Land (an atmospheric reanalysis by the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts). We show that mean annual soil temperature differs markedly from the corresponding gridded air temperature, by up to 10°C (mean = 3.0 ± 2.1°C), with substantial variation across biomes and seasons. Over the year, soils in cold and/or dry biomes are substantially warmer (+3.6 ± 2.3°C) than gridded air temperature, whereas soils in warm and humid environments are on average slightly cooler (−0.7 ± 2.3°C). The observed substantial and biome-specific offsets emphasize that the projected impacts of climate and climate change on near-surface biodiversity and ecosystem functioning are inaccurately assessed when air rather than soil temperature is used, especially in cold environments. The global soil-related bioclimatic variables provided here are an important step forward for any application in ecology and related disciplines. Nevertheless, we highlight the need to fill remaining geographic gaps by collecting more in situ measurements of microclimate conditions to further enhance the spatiotemporal resolution of global soil temperature products for ecological applications.
AB - Research in global change ecology relies heavily on global climatic grids derived from estimates of air temperature in open areas at around 2 m above the ground. These climatic grids do not reflect conditions below vegetation canopies and near the ground surface, where critical ecosystem functions occur and most terrestrial species reside. Here, we provide global maps of soil temperature and bioclimatic variables at a 1-km2 resolution for 0–5 and 5–15 cm soil depth. These maps were created by calculating the difference (i.e. offset) between in situ soil temperature measurements, based on time series from over 1200 1-km2 pixels (summarized from 8519 unique temperature sensors) across all the world's major terrestrial biomes, and coarse-grained air temperature estimates from ERA5-Land (an atmospheric reanalysis by the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts). We show that mean annual soil temperature differs markedly from the corresponding gridded air temperature, by up to 10°C (mean = 3.0 ± 2.1°C), with substantial variation across biomes and seasons. Over the year, soils in cold and/or dry biomes are substantially warmer (+3.6 ± 2.3°C) than gridded air temperature, whereas soils in warm and humid environments are on average slightly cooler (−0.7 ± 2.3°C). The observed substantial and biome-specific offsets emphasize that the projected impacts of climate and climate change on near-surface biodiversity and ecosystem functioning are inaccurately assessed when air rather than soil temperature is used, especially in cold environments. The global soil-related bioclimatic variables provided here are an important step forward for any application in ecology and related disciplines. Nevertheless, we highlight the need to fill remaining geographic gaps by collecting more in situ measurements of microclimate conditions to further enhance the spatiotemporal resolution of global soil temperature products for ecological applications.
KW - bioclimatic variables
KW - global maps
KW - microclimate
KW - near-surface temperatures
KW - soil temperature
KW - soil-dwelling organisms
KW - temperature offset
KW - weather stations
UR - https://www.scopus.com/pages/publications/85123931737
U2 - 10.1111/gcb.16060
DO - 10.1111/gcb.16060
M3 - Review article
C2 - 34967074
AN - SCOPUS:85123931737
SN - 1354-1013
VL - 28
SP - 3110
EP - 3144
JO - Global Change Biology
JF - Global Change Biology
IS - 9
ER -